A Process for Producing a Liquid Transportation Fuel Component

The present disclosure generally relates to a process for producing renewable fuel components. The disclosure relates particularly, though not exclusively, to a process for producing at least one or more liquid transportation fuel components, preferably at least an aviation fuel component.

This section illustrates useful background information without admission of any technique described herein representative of the state of the art.

There is an ongoing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and/or carbon footprint in transportation, especially aviation. Accordingly, interest towards renewable aviation fuels and aviation fuel components is and has been growing.

Processes for producing aviation fuel components from renewable raw materials have been proposed. However, the yield of aviation fuel components (compared to other fuel components) has been relatively low in said processes. Also, there is a need to improve quality of renewable aviation fuel components. Particularly, there is an interest towards producing aviation fuel components that could be used in aviation fuels in elevated amounts, or when suitably additized even as such as an aviation fuel.

It is an aim to solve or alleviate at least some of the problems related to prior art. An aim is to improve quality of aviation fuel components obtainable from renewable sources. A further aim is to enable increasing the yield of an aviation fuel component. Another aim is to reduce formation of C1-C4 hydrocarbons, especially C1-C2 hydrocarbons, in a process for producing renewable liquid transportation fuel components. Yet further, an aim is to prolong hydroisomerisation catalyst lifetime in a process for producing renewable liquid transportation fuel components.

The appended claims define the scope of protection. Any examples and technical descriptions of apparatuses, systems, products and/or methods in the description and/or drawings not covered by the claims are presented as examples useful for understanding the invention.

According to a first example aspect, there is provided a process for producing at least one liquid transportation fuel component, the process comprising:

The present process enables obtaining improved yield and/or quality of the recovered fuel component(s), and particularly of a preferably recovered aviation fuel component, while the amount of low-profit products (fuel gas) may be kept at a low level. In the present process, subjecting the first reaction section feed comprising the isoparaffin-containing paraffinic hydrocarbon feed to hydrocracking, and thereafter to hydroisomerisation (HI), followed by fractionation, has proven successful in converting the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed into high quality liquid fuel components having excellent cold properties, with very high combined yield of an aviation fuel component and a diesel fuel component. The ratio of these components may be easily adjusted in the present process for example by recovering from the fraction a recycle stream and/or a side cut, and incorporating the recycle stream and/or the side cut into the first reaction section feed to increase the content of heavier hydrocarbons and/or highly isomerised paraffins therein.

Different non-binding example aspects and embodiments have been illustrated in the foregoing. The embodiments in the foregoing are used merely to explain selected aspects or steps that may be utilized in different implementations. Some embodiments may be presented only with reference to certain example aspects. It should be appreciated that corresponding embodiments may apply to other example aspects as well.

In the following description, like reference signs denote like elements or steps.

All standards referred to herein are the latest revisions available at the filing date, unless otherwise mentioned.

Unless otherwise stated, regarding distillation characteristics, such as initial boiling points (IBP), final boiling points (FBP), T5 temperature (5 vol-% recovered), T95 temperature (95 vol-% recovered), and boiling ranges, reference is made to EN ISO 3405-2019. IBP is the temperature at the instant the first drop of condensate falls from the lower end of the condenser tube, and FBP is the maximum thermometer reading obtained during the test, usually occurring after the evaporation of all liquid from the bottom of the flask. For boiling point distribution reference may also be made to GC-based method (simdis) ASTM D2887-19e1, or for gasoline range hydrocarbons to ASTM D7096-19.

As used in the context of this disclosure, aviation fuel composition refers to hydrocarbon components suitable for use in fuel compositions meeting standard specifications for aviation fuels, such as specifications laid down in ASTM D7566-21. Typically, such aviation fuel components boil, i.e. have IBP and FBP, within a range from about 100° C. to about 300° C., such as within a range from about 150° C. to about 300° C., as determined according to EN ISO 3405-2019.

As used in the context of this disclosure, diesel fuel component refers to hydrocarbon compositions suitable for use in fuel compositions meeting standard specifications for diesel fuels, such as specifications laid down in EN 590:2022 or in EN 15940:2016+A1: 2018+AC:2019. Typically, such diesel fuel components boil, i.e. have IBP and FBP, within a range from about 160° C. to about 380° C., as determined according to EN ISO 3405-2019.

As used in the context of this disclosure, gasoline fuel component or naphtha refers to hydrocarbon components suitable for use in fuel compositions meeting standard specifications for gasoline fuels, such as specifications laid down in EN 228-2012+A1-2017. Typically, such gasoline fuel components boil, i.e. have IBP and FBP, within a range from about 25° C. to about 210° C., as determined according to EN ISO 3405-2019.

As used in the context of this disclosure, marine fuel component refers to hydrocarbon components suitable for use in fuel compositions meeting standard specifications for marine fuels, such as specifications laid down in ISO 8217-2017. Typically, such marine fuel components boil, i.e. have IBP and FBP, within a range from about 180° C. to about 600° C. such as from about 180° C. to about 400° C. as determined according to EN ISO 3405-2019.

As used herein hydrocarbons refer to compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons of particular interest in the present context comprise paraffins, n-paraffins, i-paraffins, monobranched i-paraffins, multiple-branched i-paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics. Oxygenated hydrocarbons refer herein to hydrocarbons comprising covalently bound oxygen.

As used herein paraffins refer to non-cyclic alkanes, i.e. non-cyclic, open chain saturated hydrocarbons that are linear (normal paraffins, n-paraffins) or branched (isoparaffins, i-paraffins). In other words, paraffins refer herein to n-paraffins and/or i-paraffins.

In the context of the present disclosure, i-paraffins refer to branched open chain alkanes, i.e. non-cyclic, open chain saturated hydrocarbons having one or more alkyl side chains. Herein, i-paraffins having one alkyl side chain or branch are referred to as monobranched i-paraffins and i-paraffins having two or more alkyl side chains or branches are herein referred to as multiple-branched i-paraffins. In other words, i-paraffins refer herein to monobranched i-paraffins and/or multiple-branched i-paraffins. The alkyl side chain(s) of i-paraffins may for example be C1-C9 alkyl side chain(s), preferably methyl side chain(s). The amounts of monobranched and multiple-branched i-paraffins may be given separately. The term “i-paraffins” refers to sum amount of any monobranched i-paraffins and any multiple-branched i-paraffins, if present, indicating the total amount of any i-paraffins present regardless of the number of branches. Correspondingly, “paraffins” refers to sum amount of any n-paraffins, any monobranched and any multiple-branched i-paraffins, if present.

In the context of the present disclosure, olefins refer to unsaturated, linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbons, excluding aromatic compounds. In other words, olefins refer to hydrocarbons having at least one unsaturated bond, excluding unsaturated bonds in aromatic rings.

As used herein, cyclic hydrocarbons refer to all hydrocarbons containing cyclic structure(s), including cyclic olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics. Naphthenes refer herein to cycloalkanes i.e. saturated hydrocarbons containing at least one cyclic structure, with or without side chains. As naphthenes are saturated compounds, they are compounds without aromatic ring structure(s) present. Aromatics refer herein to hydrocarbons containing at least one aromatic ring structure, i.e. cyclic structure having delocalized, alternating Ir bonds all the way around said cyclic structure.

In the context of the present disclosure, for compositions boiling at 36° C. or higher (at standard atmospheric pressure), contents of n-paraffins, i-paraffins, monobranched i-paraffins, various multiple-branched isoparaffins, naphthenes, and aromatics, are expressed as weight % (wt-%) relative to the degassed weight of the feed, stream, effluent, product, component, or sample in question or, when so defined, as weight-% (wt-%) relative to the (total) weight of paraffins or (total) weight of i-paraffins of the feed, stream, effluent, product, component, or sample in question. Said contents may be determined by GC×GC-FID/GC×GC-MS method, preferably conducted as follows: GC×GC (2D GC) method was run as generally disclosed in UOP 990-2011 and by Nousiainen M. in the experimental section of his Master's Thesis Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with mass spectrometric and flame ionization detectors in petroleum chemistry, University of Helsinki, August 2017, with the following modifications. The GC×GC was run in reverse mode, using a semipolar column (Rxi17Sil) first and a non-polar column (Rxi5Sil) thereafter, followed by FID detector, using run parameters: carrier gas helium 31.7 cm/sec (column flow at 40° C. 1.60 ml/min); split ratio 1:350; injector 280° C.; Column T program 40° C. (0 min)-5° C./min-250° C. (0 min)-10° C./min-300°° C. (5 min), run time 52 min; modulation period 10 sec; detector 300° C. with H40 ml/min and air 400 ml/min; makeup flow helium 30 ml/min; sampling rate 250 Hz and injection size 0.2 microliters. Individual compounds were identified using GC×GC-MS, with MS-parameters: ion source 230° C.; interface 300° C.; scan range 25-500 amu; event time (sec) 0.05; scan speed 20000. Commercial tools (Shimadzu's LabSolutions, Zoex's GC Image) were used for data processing including identification of the detected compounds or hydrocarbon groups, and for determining their mass concentrations by application of response factors relative to n-heptane to the volumes of detected peaks followed by normalization to 100 wt-%. Olefins were lumped with naphthenes and heteroatomic species with aromatics, unless separately reported. The limit of quantitation for individual compounds of this method is 0.1 wt-%.

In the context of the present disclosure, various characteristics of the feeds, streams, effluents, products, components, or samples are determined according to the standard methods referred to or disclosed herein, as properly prepared. For example, cloud point is determined according to ASTM D 5771-17 from a degassed feed, stream, effluent, product, component, or sample.

Typically, the various paraffinic feeds, streams, effluents, and fuel components as recovered products or fractions thereof, referred to herein, may comprise in addition to hydrocarbons, also varying trace amounts of e.g. heteroatom-containing hydrocarbons and inorganic compounds as impurities, and the oxygenated hydrocarbon feed varying amounts of e.g. other heteroatom-containing hydrocarbons and inorganic compounds as impurities. Generally, the level of impurities in the main process streams is highest in the first parts of the process and decreases subsequently being negligible or even below detection limit in the recovered liquid transportation fuel component(s).

In the context of this disclosure, feed(s) to reaction sections, particularly to the first reaction section and/or the second reaction section, are defined so that Hpossibly fed to the respective reaction section, for example Hfed to the hydrocracking and/or Hfed to the hydroisomerisation, is excluded from the definition of the feed(s).

As used herein, hydrocracking (HC) effluent refers to total HC effluent or degassed HC effluent, as the case may be, and the term HC effluent may encompass both of these.

In the context of this disclosure, CX+ paraffins, CX+ n-paraffins, CX+ i-paraffins, CX+ mono-branched i-paraffins, CX+ multiple-branched i-paraffins, CX+ hydrocarbons, or CX+ fatty acids refer to paraffins, n-paraffins, i-paraffins, mono-branched i-paraffins, multiple-branched i-paraffins, hydrocarbons, or fatty acids, respectively, having a carbon number of at least X, where X is any feasible integer. It is understood that every compound falling within the definition is not necessarily present.

In the context of this disclosure, CY− paraffins, CY− n-paraffins, CY− i-paraffins, CY− mono-branched i-paraffins, CY− multiple-branched i-paraffins, CY− hydrocarbons, or CY− fatty acids refer to paraffins, n-paraffins, i-paraffins, mono-branched i-paraffins, multiple-branched i-paraffins, hydrocarbons, or fatty acids, respectively, having a carbon number of at most Y, wherein Y is any feasible integer. It is understood that every compound falling within the definition is not necessarily present.

In the context of this disclosure, CX-CX(or from CXto CX) paraffins, CX-CXn-paraffins, CX-CXi-paraffins, CX-CXmono-branched i-paraffins, or CX-CXmultiple-branched i-paraffins, CX-CXhydrocarbons, or CX-CXfatty acids refer to a range of paraffins, n-paraffins, i-paraffins, mono-branched i-paraffins, or multiple-branched i-paraffins, hydrocarbons, or fatty acids, respectively, where Xy and Xz are feasible end-value integers, wherein the carbon numbers within such range is as indicated by the end-value integers and any integers between said end-values, if present. However, paraffins, n-paraffins, i-paraffins, mono-branched i-paraffins, multiple-branched i-paraffins, hydrocarbons, or fatty acids, as the case may be, of all said carbon numbers within said range, particularly at or around the end points are not necessarily present, except when so expressly indicated. On the other hand, isomers, by definition, may comprise several hydrocarbons compounds having the same carbon number, such as C15 isomers may comprise methyltetradecanes (different position of the methyl-branch), dimethyltridecanes (different positions of the two methyl-branches), etc, wherein “C15 isomers” comprises the sum amount of all such variants.

Typically, a sum amount as of weight or volume of paraffins, n-paraffins, i-paraffins, mono-branched i-paraffins, multiple-branched i-paraffins, hydrocarbons, or fatty acids, as defined each time, paraffins of all carbon numbers included is meant. For example, C15 to C22 n-paraffins refers to any n-paraffins within said range if present, such as C15, C16, C17, C18, C19, C20, C21, and C22 n-paraffins, even if the content of C15 n-paraffins was zero. In other words, a sum amount is obtainable by addition of 0 (referring to absent C15 n-paraffins) to the sum weight of all other C15 to C22 n-paraffins present.

Isomerisation converts at least a certain amount of n-paraffins to i-paraffins, especially to mono-branched i-paraffins. By (further) raising the isomerisation degree, for example by increasing severity of the hydroisomerisation as described hereinafter, more n-paraffins can be converted to i-paraffins, and mono-branched i-paraffins can be converted to multiple-branched i-paraffins, such as di-branched, tri-branched i-paraffins, even i-paraffins comprising more than three branches.

As used herein and in the context of the first reaction section, degree of effective cracking refers to cracking that yields non-gaseous (NTP) cracking products, and especially as expressed as the ratio of the C8-C14 hydrocarbon content in the hydrocracking effluent to the C8-C14 hydrocarbon content in the first reaction section feed.

As used herein, wherever the reaction steps are defined to take place in “reactors”, said expression is used for illustrative purposes mainly. A person skilled in the art contemplates that any “reactor” is in practice implemented as a reactor system that may consist of one or more reactors. Whether the reactors are actually arranged in a single reactor or several reactors is a matter of engineering, and may be influenced by practical issues such as maximum height of the facility at the site, reactor diameter, regulatory and maintenance issues at the site, wind conditions at the site, and/or available equipment. Analogously, the “fractionation” may take place in a fractionation system, typically comprising e.g. separation and distillation units, which may be arranged according to conventional engineering practice in the field.

Catalyst characteristics, such as total number of acid sites, refers in the context of this disclosure to the catalyst characteristics in their ready-to-use state, in the beginning of the present process.

As used herein, the term catalyst deactivation refers to decreased activity of the catalyst (reflected by the amount of unconverted feed in the reaction section effluent) and/or decreased selectivity of the catalyst (reflected by decreased amount of desired reaction products in the reaction section effluent) at a given time point (t), compared to the activity and/or selectivity of the catalyst in the beginning of the present process (t). As used herein, the term catalyst deactivation is not limited to any specific deactivation type or mechanism, although the catalyst deactivation observed in the present process is generally believed to be attributed to poisoning and fouling phenomena, and encompasses both reversible and irreversible deactivation.

As used herein, the term renewable refers to compounds or compositions that are obtainable, derivable, or originating from plants and/or animals, including compounds or compositions obtainable, derivable, or originating from fungi and/or algae, in full or in part. As used herein, renewable compounds or compositions may comprise gene manipulated compounds or compositions. Renewable feeds, components, compounds, or compositions may also be referred to as biological feeds, components, compounds, or compositions, or as biogenic feeds, components, compounds, or compositions.

As used herein, the term fossil refers to compounds or compositions that are obtainable, derivable, or originating from naturally occurring non-renewable compositions, such as crude oil, petroleum oil/gas, shale oil/gas, natural gas, or coal deposits, and the like, and combinations thereof, including any hydrocarbon-rich deposits that can be utilised from ground/underground sources.

The term circular refers to recycled material typically originating from non-renewable sources. For example, the term circular may refer to recycled material originating from waste plastics. Said renewable and circular, and fossil compounds or compositions are considered differing from one another based on their origin and impact on environmental issues. Therefore, they may be treated differently under legislation and regulatory framework. Typically, renewable, circular, and fossil compounds or compositions are differentiated based on their origin and information thereof provided by the producer.

Chemically the renewable or fossil origin of any organic compounds, including hydrocarbons, can be determined by suitable method for analysing the content of carbon from renewable sources e.g. DIN 51637 (2014), ASTM D6866 (2020), or EN 16640 (2017). Said methods are based on the fact that carbon atoms of renewable or biological origin comprise a higher number of unstable radiocarbon (C) atoms compared to carbon atoms of fossil origin. Therefore, it is possible to distinguish between carbon compounds derived from renewable or biological sources or raw material and carbon compounds derived from non-renewable or fossil sources or raw material by analysing the ratio ofC andC isotopes. Thus, a particular ratio of said isotopes can be used as a “tag” to identify a renewable carbon compound and differentiate it from non-renewable carbon compounds. The isotope ratio does not change in the course of chemical reactions. Therefore, the isotope ratio can be used for identifying renewable compounds, components, and compositions and distinguishing them from non-renewable, fossil materials in reaction section feeds, reaction section effluents, separated product fractions and various blends thereof. Numerically, the biogenic carbon content can be expressed as the amount of biogenic carbon in the material as a weight percent of the total carbon (TC) in the material (in accordance with ASTM D6866 (2020) or EN 16640 (2017)). In the present context, the term renewable preferably refers to a material having a biogenic carbon content of more than 50 wt-%, especially more than 60 wt-% or more than 70 wt-%, preferably more than 80 wt-%, more preferably more than 90 wt-% or more than 95 wt-%, even more preferably about 100 wt-%, based on the total weight of carbon in the material (EN 16640 (2017)).

The present disclosure provides a process for producing at least one liquid transportation fuel component, the process comprising: providing a paraffinic hydrocarbon feed comprising at least 60 wt-% paraffins of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, of which paraffins at least 5 wt-% are isoparaffins; subjecting a first reaction section feed comprising the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed and optionally a recycle stream and/or a side cut to hydrocracking (HC) in a first reaction section in the presence of a hydrocracking catalyst to obtain a hydrocracking effluent; subjecting a second reaction section feed comprising the hydrocracking effluent to hydroisomerisation (HI) in a second reaction section in the presence of a hydroisomerisation catalyst to obtain a hydroisomerisation effluent; and feeding the hydroisomerisation effluent to a fractionation and recovering from the fractionation at least one or more liquid transportation fuel components, and optionally the recycle stream and/or the side cut.

Preferably, the present process is a continuous process.

Typically, in the present process at least one or more of an aviation fuel component, a diesel fuel component, a gasoline fuel component, and/or a marine fuel component is recovered from the fractionation, preferably at least an aviation fuel component, more preferably at least an aviation fuel component and a diesel fuel component. With the present process it is possible to obtain higher yield of aviation fuel component, particularly higher combined yield of aviation and diesel fuel components, and/or to improve their quality, compared to conventional processes for producing fuel components by hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) and HI of renewable fats and oils. These benefits were shown in experiments comparing subjecting the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed to only HI, to only HC, or to HI followed by HC, before fractionation and product recovery.

With the present process it is possible to produce an aviation fuel component having excellent cold properties and hence usable in aviation fuels, even with high blending ratio. Also, the present process enables extending the HC and/or HI catalyst lifetime and enables utilisation of a broader range of feeds, including heavier and more impure feeds, compared to conventional processes for producing fuel components by HDO and HI of renewable fats and oils. Furthermore, the present process enables flexible adjustment of product selectivity towards the various liquid transportation fuel components, particularly to aviation fuel component and to diesel fuel component based on e.g. market dynamics, even towards the end of the lifetime of the HC catalyst and/or HI catalyst. The present process suggests subjecting an isoparaffin-containing paraffinic hydrocarbon feed to hydrocracking in a first reaction section, which hydrocracking cracks longer paraffin molecules for example to paraffins boiling in the aviation fuel range. Having at least some isoparaffins in the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed helps to reach desired degree of effective cracking in the first reaction section at milder operating conditions (compared to a paraffinic hydrocarbon feed containing no or just low amount of isoparaffins), thereby efficiently reducing formation of low-profit products, such as fuel gases. Subjecting the isoparaffin-containing paraffinic hydrocarbon feed to hydrocracking in the first reaction section may even isomerise n-paraffins in the feed as well as n-paraffins formed in the course of cracking reactions, and further isomerise isoparaffins by increasing the number of branches in isoparaffin molecules producing multiple-branched isoparaffins. Hence, by operating the process of the present disclosure, the isomerisation degree of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed may be maintained, but preferably increased, in the first reaction section. This is beneficial for achieving high isoparaffin content in the HC effluent, even towards the end of the HC catalyst lifetime. Preferably, by operating the process of the present disclosure the content of multiple-branched isoparaffins in the HC effluent is efficiently elevated, compared to their content in the first reaction section feed. Enhanced degree of effective cracking without excess formation of gaseous hydrocarbons in the first reaction section, and an increased isoparaffin content of the HC effluent, are beneficial both for the yield and the quality of the transportation fuel component(s) recovered from the fractionation, especially for the yield and quality of the aviation fuel component. The hydrocracking in the first reaction section may increase the yield of aviation fuel component as well as improve its quality, for example its cold properties. The hydroisomerisation in the second reaction section (further) reduces content of n-paraffins and (further) increases content of isoparaffins, preferably content of multiple-branched isoparaffins, in the HI effluent and in the recovered fuel component(s).

During continued operation of the catalytic HC and HI, the catalysts deactivate gradually for example due to impurities in process streams and coking. The present process is highly flexible and involves various possibilities to adjust the yield and/or quality of the recovered liquid transportation fuel component(s), and to prolong the lifetime of the HI and HC catalysts. Convenient means for adjusting the yield and/or quality of the recovered liquid transportation fuel component(s) and/or to respond to the catalyst deactivation, or changing market needs, may include for example adjusting the amount of the recycle stream and/or the side cut optionally recovered and subjected to hydrocracking, splitting the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed between the first reaction section and the second reaction section in adjustable weight ratio, and/or in embodiments recovering the recycle stream adjusting the amount of heavies optionally removed from the process as diesel fuel component, as marine fuel component, or as some other heavy product component. The various possibilities to adjust the process enable the use of paraffinic hydrocarbon feeds that have higher impurity content compared to conventional processes for producing liquid fuel components by HDO and HI of renewable fats and oils. Also, the hydrocracking step enables use of feeds comprising heavier and longer chain molecules compared to said conventional processes for producing liquid fuel components, typically diesel components, while being able to produce lower-boiling liquid transportation fuel components, particularly aviation fuel component, with good yields and quality.

In certain preferred embodiments of the present process, the second reaction section feed further comprises a portion of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, and the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed is split between the first reaction section feed and the second reaction section feed. These embodiments provide further flexibility for operating the present process, and possibility to adjust the process e.g. according to fluctuations in the characteristics of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed. Furthermore, the process may be operated even more precisely in order to meet targeted yields and qualities of more than one recovered component at a time. In this way it may be possible to avoid situations where targeted yield and quality of one recovered fuel component are met but at the expense of producing over-quality of another recovered fuel component (e.g. producing a diesel fuel component having unnecessarily low cloud point).

In certain preferred embodiments, the present process comprises recovering from the fractionation the recycle stream and feeding the recycle stream to the first reaction section as part of the first reaction section feed and/or recovering from the fractionation the side cut and feeding the side cut to the first reaction section as part of the first reaction section feed and/or feeding a portion of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed to the second reaction section as part of the second reaction section feed, which portion of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed is obtained by splitting the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed between the first reaction section and the second reaction section. These embodiments provide (further) enhanced flexibility for operating the process, including possibility to adjust the process e.g. according to fluctuations in the characteristics of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, according to the demand of the share and quality of the produced diesel and aviation fuel components, and/or according to the changing activity and/or selectivity of the HI and HC catalysts throughout their lifetimes. Additionally, the process may be operated even more precisely in order to meet targeted yields and qualities of more than one recovered component at a time, without a need to produce over-quality of some other recovered fuel component.

In the present process, the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed subjected to hydroisomerisation in the first reactor comprises at least 60 wt-% paraffins of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, of which paraffins at least 5 wt-% are isoparaffins. This means that when the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed comprises 60 wt-% paraffins of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, then at least 5 wt-% of the total weight of paraffins in the paraffinic feed, i.e. at least 3 wt-% of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, are isoparaffins. Typically, the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed comprises at least 70 wt-%, preferably at least 80 wt-%, more preferably at least 90 wt-%, even more preferably at least 95 wt-% paraffins of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed. The paraffinic hydrocarbon feed of the present disclosure may contain minor amounts of olefins, preferably less than 5 wt-%, more preferably less than 1 wt-%, based on the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed, as well as minor amounts of aromatics and/or naphthenes. An advantage of using a highly paraffinic hydrocarbon feed in the present process is that paraffins crack relatively easily and at milder conditions when subjected to HC compared to e.g. cyclic hydrocarbons. Also, paraffins are isomerised relatively easily and at milder conditions when subjected to HI.

Of the paraffins in the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed of the present disclosure, typically at least 8 wt-%, or at least 10 wt-%, preferably at least 20 wt-%, further preferably at least 30 wt-%, more preferably at least 40 wt-%, further more preferably at least 50 wt-%, even more preferably at least 60 wt-%, most preferably at least 70 wt-%, or at least 80 wt-% are isoparaffins of the total weight of paraffins in the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed.

A high weight-ratio (wt-%:wt-%) of i-paraffins to n-paraffins in the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed may contribute to enhanced degree of effective cracking during HC in the first reaction section, as i-paraffins are believed to be more prone to crack compared to n-paraffins of same carbon number. Moreover, the presence of isoparaffins in the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed may yield a HC effluent with a higher content of multiple-branched isoparaffins. Similar considerations may apply to the content of the multiple-branched isoparaffins, as detailed later in connection with the compositions of the first reaction section feed. Hence, in certain preferred embodiments, the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed comprises at least 3 wt-%, preferably at least 5 wt-%, more preferably at least 10 wt-%, even more preferably at least 15 wt-% multiple-branched isoparaffins of the total weight of paraffins in the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed. Preferably, the first reaction section feed may comprise the largest portion of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed compared to the other feed stream(s) of the process.

Preferably, the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed of the present disclosure comprises at least 70 wt-%, preferably at least 80 wt-%, more preferably at least 90 wt-%, even more preferably at least 95 wt-% hydrocarbons having a carbon number within a range from C12 to C30, of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed. In certain particularly preferred embodiments, the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed comprises at least 70 wt-%, preferably at least 80 wt-%, more preferably at least 90 wt-%, even more preferably at least 95 wt-% hydrocarbons having a carbon number within a range from C14 to C22, of the total weight of the paraffinic hydrocarbon feed. Paraffinic hydrocarbon feeds having a high content of C12-C30 hydrocarbons are preferred as they allow good yields of two or more liquid transportation fuel components of different kinds. C14-C22 hydrocarbons are particularly preferred for the same reason, and also because they are readily available for example from conventional hydrodeoxygenation processes of vegetable oils, animal fats and/or microbial oils, comprising fatty acids.