Systems and Methods for Feeding Solid Material and a Gas into an Electrolytic Cell

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 18/463,776, filed Sep. 8, 2023, and entitled “Systems and Methods for Feeding Solid Material and a Gas into an Electrolytic Cell,” which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/405,185, filed Sep. 9, 2022, and entitled “Systems and Methods for Feeding Solid Material and a Gas into an Electrolytic Cell,” each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

Systems and methods for feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell are generally described.

The present disclosure is directed to systems and methods for feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell. Certain aspects are related to feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell through an inlet. In certain embodiments, the inlet can be positioned such that it is relatively close to one or more anodes of the electrolytic cell. The subject matter of the present disclosure involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/or articles.

Certain aspects are related to methods.

In some embodiments, the method comprises feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell through an inlet; wherein: the gas comprises an inert gas; and the inlet is positioned, relative to an anode of the electrolytic cell, within a distance that is less than or equal to 5 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode.

In some embodiments, the method comprises feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell through an inlet; wherein: the gas comprises an inert gas, the electrolytic cell comprises one or more anodes and one or more cathodes, and the inlet is positioned closer to one of the anodes than to any of the cathodes.

Certain aspects are related to systems.

In some embodiments, the system comprises a container configured for molten salt electrolysis; a passageway fluidically connected to the container and configured for feeding solid material and a gas into the container; an anode at least partially within the container; a cathode at least partially within the container; and an outlet at or near the top of the container configured for releasing a gas from the container; wherein an inlet from the passageway to the container is positioned, relative to the anode, within a distance that is less than or equal to 5 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode.

In some embodiments, the system comprises a container configured for molten salt electrolysis, a passageway fluidically connected to the container and configured for feeding solid material and an inert gas into the container, one or more anodes, wherein each anode is positioned at least partially within the container, one or more cathodes, wherein each cathode is positioned at least partially within the container, and an outlet at or near the top of the container configured for releasing a gas from the container; wherein an inlet from the passageway to the container is positioned closer to one of the anodes than to any of the cathodes.

Other advantages and novel features of the present disclosure will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the disclosure when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control.

The present disclosure is directed to systems and methods for feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell. Certain aspects are related to feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell through an inlet. In certain embodiments, the inlet can be positioned such that it is relatively close to one or more anodes of the electrolytic cell.

As will be described in more detail below, certain methods described herein relate to electrolytic cells and certain systems described herein are suitable for containing an electrolytic cell. Electrolytic cells may be capable of performing and/or configured to perform one or more redox reactions upon the input of electrical energy. The reactions that occur upon the input of such electrical energy may also be referred to as electrolytic reactions, and the process of operating an electrolytic cell to perform such reactions may be referred to as electrolysis. Operation of an electrolytic cell may comprise generating a voltage difference of one or more anodes present in the electrolytic cell with respect to one or more cathodes present therein, which may cause the anode(s) to exhibit a positive charge and the cathode(s) to exhibit a negative charge. The voltage difference may cause an oxidation reaction to occur at the anode and/or a reduction reaction to occur at the cathode.

In some instances, during electrolysis, the anode(s) and cathode(s) present in an electrolytic cell do not react during the redox reactions and so remain unconsumed by these redox reactions. It is also possible for either or both of the anode(s) and the cathode(s) to react during the redox reactions and/or to be consumed by the redox reactions. The redox reactions may comprise reducing metal cations present in the electrolyte to generate, as a desired product, elemental and/or alloyed metal (e.g., a metal having a zero oxidation state). The redox reactions may comprise oxidizing anion counter ions to form, as a byproduct, elemental gases.

Some embodiments are directed to methods in which a solid material and a gas are fed into an electrolytic cell. The solid material may comprise one or more species that are capable of undergoing and/or are configured to undergo electrolysis in the electrolytic cell. Upon introduction into the electrolytic cell, the solid material may melt and/or be dissolved in the electrolyte. Components thereof may be transported to the anode and/or the cathode to undergo one or more redox reactions. As one example, in some embodiments, a solid material comprises a salt comprising a metal cation. In such embodiments, the metal cation may be reduced at the cathode to form a metallic product, such as elemental and/or alloyed metal.

Gas introduced with the solid material may assist with maintaining an atmosphere in the electrolytic cell that is conducive to performing electrolysis. For instance, it may be relatively inert with respect to the components of the electrolytic cell. As another example, it may assist with maintaining a pressure in the electrolytic cell such that other, more reactive gases (e.g., water) are not pulled into the electrolytic cell via a pressure gradient.

In some embodiments, a solid material and a gas are fed into an electrolytic cell at a location that is desirably close to one or more anodes present in the electrolytic cell and/or desirably far from one or more cathodes present in the electrolytic cell. For instance, in some embodiments, a solid material and a gas are fed into an electrolytic cell at a location that is closer to an anode than to any cathode or cathodes also present in the electrolytic cell. Such a design may advantageously improve anode and/or cathode performance.

As one example, feeding a solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell at a location that is relatively far from the cathodes of the electrolytic cell may reduce and/or eliminate drawbacks associated with introducing such species too close to a cathode. One such drawback is the accumulation of the solid material at the cathode(s). When an appreciable amount of such accumulation occurs, it undesirably forms a sludge that hinders access to the cathode by additional solid material being fed into the electrolytic cell, thereby increasing the resistance of the electrolytic cell and/or decreasing the rate of the electrolysis reaction performed therein. Accumulation of a solid material at a cathode is believed to occur when solid material contacts the cathode prior to melting and/or dissolution in the electrolyte. Thus, introducing the solid material into the electrolytic cell at a location that is relatively far from the cathodes therein, which may promote a higher level of solid material melting and/or dissolution in the electrolyte prior to cathode contact, is believed to reduce these deleterious phenomena.

In some instances, solid material that is fed into an electrolytic cell at a location that is relatively close to the cathode results in an appreciable amount of the solid material failing to melt or dissolve in the electrolyte and instead accumulating at the bottom of the electrolytic cell. This solid material, because it fails to become solubilized in the electrolyte, fails to be transported to the anode or the cathode or to undergo the electrolytic reactions being performed in the electrolytic cell, thereby undesirably reducing the efficiency of the electrolytic cell.

By contrast, feeding a solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell at a location that is relatively close to an anode of the electrolytic cell may enhance electrolytic cell performance. In some embodiments, bubbles are generated at the anode as a product or byproduct of the electrolytic reaction(s) occurring there. Such bubbles may serve to render the electrolyte more turbulent in regions closer to the anode, which may facilitate dissolution of the solid material, thereby reducing and/or preventing its accumulation at a cathode and/or in the bottom of the electrolytic cell.

As another example, it may be more facile to feed a solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell at a location that is relatively close to an anode of electrolytic cell. During operation, electrolytic cells sometimes generate byproducts that interfere with the introduction of solid materials thereto. In such instances, it can be advantageous to add the solid material at a location in which such byproducts have a relatively low (and/or zero) concentration. For instance, electrolytic cells comprising a carbon-containing anode (e.g., a graphite anode) may generate carbon dust that collects on the surface of the electrolyte and floats thereon. This carbon dust may be removed by electrolytic reactions occurring at the anode, and so may have a concentration that is lower in locations closer to the anode(s) but higher in locations farther from the anode(s). As this carbon dust may hinder contact between the solid material and the electrolyte, it may slow the dissolution of the solid material in the electrolyte, which may have the negative effects described elsewhere herein. Accordingly, feeding a solid material into the electrolytic cell at a location that is relatively carbon dust-free, such as a location close to the anode, may be beneficial.

Some embodiments relate to systems, such as systems suitable for performing electrolysis and/or suitable for containing an electrolytic cell. It is also possible for the systems described herein to be capable of performing and/or configured to perform one or more of the methods described herein.

In some embodiments, a system comprises one or more anodes, one or more cathodes, and a container in which the anode(s) and cathode(s) may be at least partially positioned. The container may further contain the electrolyte, such as a molten salt electrolyte. Electrolysis performed in electrolytic cells comprising such an electrolyte may be referred to as molten salt electrolysis.

Some systems may further comprise one or more additional components that facilitate the performance of electrolysis. For instance, the container may include a passageway through which solid material and gas may be fed into the container, and the inlet from this passageway to this container may be positioned closer to one of the anodes than to any of the cathodes. This may be desirable for the reasons provided above.

Another example of a component that can facilitate the performance of electrolysis is an outlet for releasing a gas from the chamber (e.g., an outlet capable of releasing and/or configured to release a gas from the chamber). As noted above, in some instances, one or more gases may be generated during electrolysis. It may be desirable to remove such gas from the chamber during electrolysis in order to prevent the pressure in the chamber from becoming unduly large. Additionally, some such gases may undesirably interfere with the redox reactions occurring the electrolytic cell, react with one or more components present in the electrolytic cell, and/or react with one or more products produced by the redox reactions occurring in the electrolytic cell. Removing such gas may reduce the rate at which the gas accumulates on and/or reacts with other components present in the system and/or an electrolytic cell therein. In some embodiments, the outlet is positioned at or near the top of the container. This may be desirable when the gas to be released is less dense than other components contained within the chamber and so may be transported upwards (and, likely, towards the outlet) via buoyancy.

Certain embodiments of this disclosure provide a precise, inert passageway for feeding solid material and a gas into high temperature (e.g., greater than or equal to 500 degrees Celsius) molten salt electrolysis cells (also referred to herein as electrolytic cells). Upon introduction into the electrolytic cell, the solid material may melt and/or dissolve in electrolyte present therein. In certain embodiments, the arrangements described herein can be configured such that volatile species that come off the molten salt do not condense on an inlet from the passageway to the electrolytic cell, which would otherwise cause clogging and shortened lifetime of passageway components. In accordance with some embodiments, the system can be arranged to avoid hand feeding material into the cell at known frequencies by an operator or technician. Certain embodiments comprise usage of a purely mechanical passageway.

Certain embodiments of this disclosure involve an inlet from a passageway into a container of an electrolytic cell. An inlet may comprise one or more openings through which a solid material and/or a gas may be fed into the electrolytic cell and/or the container therein. In some instances, an inlet may be located, relative to an anode of the electrolytic cell, within a distance that is less than or equal to 5 times (or less than or equal to 4 times, less than or equal to 3 times, less than or equal to 2 times, or less than or equal to 1 time) the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode. As noted above, it is also possible for the inlet to be located closer to an anode present in the electrolytic cell than to any of the cathodes located therein.

The distance between an electrode (e.g., an anode, a cathode) and an inlet may be determined by measuring the distance from the opening(s) of the inlet to the portion(s) of the electrode to which it is closest (i.e., the portion of the electrode that minimizes the distance measurement). The smallest distance measured by this process is equivalent to the distance between the electrode and the inlet.

In some embodiments, material throughput (e.g., adding solid material to the cell and melting and/or dissolving the solid material) is higher relative to that in previous systems due, at least in part, to the location of the inlet relative to the anode. In certain embodiments, the amount of solid material that can be melted, and/or fed to and/or dissolved within a molten salt of the electrolytic cell can be at least 1 g/hour, at least 10 g/hour, at least 50 g/hour, at least 100 g/hour, or more. In certain embodiments, the amount of solid material that can be melted, and/or fed to and/or dissolved within a molten salt of the electrolytic cell can be less than or equal to 1 kg/hour, less than or equal to 500 g/hour, or less than or equal to 150 g/hour. Combinations of these ranges are also possible. Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, an electrolytic cell described herein can be run at a higher current relative to the current at which other systems are run due, at least in part, to the location of the inlet relative to the anode. In some embodiments, the electrolytic cell can be run at a current of at least 1 amp, at least 10 amps, at least 50 amps, at least 100 amps, at least 500 amps, at least 1,000 amps, at least 5,000 amps, at least 10,000 amps, at least 50,000 amps, at least 100,000 amps, at least 500,000 amps, at least 1,000,000 amps, at least 5,000,000 amps, at least 10,000,000 amps, at least 50,000,00 amps, or more. In certain embodiments, the electrolytic cell can be run at a current of less than or equal to 100,000,000 amps, less than or equal to 50,000,000 amps, less than or equal to 10,000,000 amps, less than or equal to 5,000,000 amps, less than or equal to 1,000,000 amps, less than or equal to 500,000 amps, less than or equal to 100,000 amps, less than or equal to 50,000 amps, less than or equal to 10,000 amps, less than or equal to 1000 amps, less than or equal to 500 amps, less than or equal to 200 amps, or less. Combinations of these ranges are also possible. Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the location of the inlet adjacent to the anode(s) (e.g., closer to one of the anodes than to any of the cathodes of the electrolytic cell) facilitates dissolution of solid material entering the container through the inlet (e.g., into the molten salt). The melting and/or dissolution time of solid material into molten salt may be less than or equal to 5 minutes, less than or equal to 3 minutes, or less than or equal to 1 minute. The melting and/or dissolution time of solid material into molten salt may be greater than or equal to 1 second, greater than or equal to 10 seconds, or greater than or equal to 30 seconds. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 1 second and less than or equal to 5 minutes, greater than or equal to 10 seconds and less than or equal to 3 minutes, greater than or equal to 30 seconds and less than or equal to 1 minute). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, melting and/or dissolution of at least a portion of the solid material into the molten salt may be instant.

Without wishing to necessarily be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that short melting and/or dissolution times may be due to off gasses at the anode(s) causing turbulent mixing (e.g., Reynolds number greater than 2000) of the fed solid material, facilitating the quick dissolution of the solid material in the molten salt. In some embodiments, an anode (e.g., an anode at which bubbles are generated) and/or bubbles generated by an anode may turbulently mix a liquid and/or an electrolyte (e.g., a liquid and/or an electrolyte in the vicinity of the anode, such as a molten salt in the vicinity of the anode). In some embodiments, the solid material is exposed to (and/or a liquid proximate the anode has) a Reynolds number greater than or equal to 100, greater than or equal to 200, greater than or equal to 500, greater than or equal to 1,000, greater than or equal to 2,000, greater than or equal to 3,000, greater than or equal to 4,000, or greater than or equal to 7,500. In some embodiments, the solid material is exposed to (and/or a liquid proximate the anode has) a Reynolds number less than or equal to 10,000, less than or equal to 8,000, less than or equal to 6,000, less than or equal to 5,000, less than or equal to 4,000, less than or equal to 3,000, less than or equal to 2,000, less than or equal to 1,000, less than or equal to 500, or less than or equal to 200.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 100 and less than or equal to 10,000, greater than or equal to 1,000 and less than or equal to 5,000, greater than or equal to 2,000 and less than or equal to 10,000, greater than or equal to 3,000 and less than or equal to 8,000, greater than or equal to 4,000 and less than or equal to 6,000). Other ranges are also possible.

In certain embodiments, the system (e.g., molten salt electrolysis cell) has a passageway (e.g., comprising (e.g., consisting of) SS304, Inconel, Hastelloy C276 or other compatible materials with effluent gas) that is fluidically connected to an inlet to the container. Such an inlet may supply an electrolytic cell positioned in the system with a solid material and/or a gas.

In some embodiments, the passageway is sealed and purged with dry inert gas (e.g., a noble gas, such as argon, nitrogen, or similar). In some embodiments, the passageway is purged with dry inert gas at a rate of at least 5 mL/min, at least 50 mL/min, or at least 100 mL/min. In some embodiments, the passageway is purged with dry inert gas at a rate of at most 1000 mL/min, at most 500 mL/min, or at most 400 mL/min. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., at least 5 mL/min and at most 1000 mL/min, at least 50 mL/min and at most 500 mL/min, at least 100 mL/min and at most 400 mL/min). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, this purge helps facilitate the flow of solid material down into the container (e.g., electrolysis crucible), while preventing volatile salt components from condensing on the inlet of the passageway.

In some embodiments, some (e.g., all) mechanical elements of systems described herein comprise (e.g., consist of) stainless steel (e.g., 304, 316, or some comparable alloy). In some embodiments, valves and other instrumentation have Teflon based seals or all stainless-steel construction (e.g., 304, 316, or some comparable alloy).

In some embodiments, some (e.g., all) parts of the system are designed for long lifetimes (e.g., corrosion rate less than 10 mm/month) resistant against corrosive effluent. In some embodiments, the system is designed to maintain air-tightness in order to prevent moisture from entering the atmosphere of the passageway and/or the container, reacting with the feed solid material, causing clumping and/or negatively affecting the feed rate of the solid material.

Certain embodiments of systems described herein have an integrated passageway that can reliably deliver solid material into a sealed, high temperature, corrosive molten salt electrolytic cell. In certain embodiments, the location and method of feeding solid material into the container (e.g., electrolytic cell) differentiates this system by increasing the dissolution kinetics in the molten salt relative to prior systems. These factors may contribute to a significant cost-reduction from an operating expense point of view over the current state of the art by reducing labor and incorporating automation. In certain embodiments, systems and methods described herein facilitate molten salt electrolysis processes to operate more efficiently and avoid operator error or technician error in the feeding step.

As noted above, certain aspects are related to methods. The methods may be used to feed solid material and a gas into a container (e.g., electrolytic cell).

In certain embodiments, the method comprises feeding solid material and a gas into an electrolytic cell through an inlet. In some embodiments, the method comprises feeding the solid material and the gas, through an electrically isolated or electrically grounded passageway, to and through the inlet. In some embodiments, pressure may be applied during the feeding step. For instance, the gas may be supplied in a manner that causes it to apply a pressure to the solid material and that facilitates the feeding of the solid material into the electrolytic cell. In some embodiments, the passageway comprises a parallelepiped. In some embodiments, the passageway comprises a channel or conduit. In some embodiments, the method comprises releasing a gas from the electrolytic cell through an outlet. In some embodiments, the method comprises dissolving the solid material into a molten salt within the electrolytic cell using gas bubbles produced at the anode. The gas bubbles may comprise products and/or byproducts of a redox reaction occurring in the electrolytic cell, such as halogen gases (e.g., chlorine gas, fluorine gas), O, and/or CO.

In certain embodiments, as noted above, an electrolyte present in an electrolytic cell my comprise, consist of, and/or consist essentially of a molten salt. The electrolyte molten salt may comprise, consist of, and/or consist essentially of the material fed into the electrolytic cell as a solid and subsequently melted to form a liquid (e.g., melted by the heat present in the electrolytic cell and/or a container in a system comprising the electrolytic cell). Such electrolyte may further comprise one or more products formed by reactions of this material within the electrolytic cell. It is also possible for the electrolyte to further comprise other molten salts (e.g., a molten salt present in the electrolytic cell prior to the introduction of the solid material thereto, a molten salt that does not undergo a redox reaction in the electrolytic cell).

In some embodiments, a molten salt is a eutectic molten salt. This may advantageously allow for the operation of the electrolytic cell with the molten salt at a relatively low temperature. In some embodiments, a molten salt comprises a molten halide salt. In certain embodiments, the molten salt is a chloride and/or fluoride molten salt. The molten salts may comprise any suitable cation, such as a metal cation. Non-limiting examples of suitable metal cations include alkali metal cations and rare earth metal cations. As used herein, a “halide” is an anion of a “halogen.” The “halogens” are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts).

The “alkali metals” is used herein to refer to the following six chemical elements of Group 1 of the periodic table: lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). The term “alkaline earth metal” is used herein to refer to the six chemical elements in Group 2 of the periodic table: beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).

The “rare earth metals,” as used herein, are the lanthanides, yttrium (Y), and scandium (Sc). The “lanthanides,” as used herein, are lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and lutetium (Lu).

In some embodiments, the inlet is positioned, relative to an anode of the electrolytic cell (and/or an anode positioned at least partially within a container), within a distance that is less than or equal to 5 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, less than or equal to 4 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, less than or equal to 3 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, less than or equal to 2 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, or less than or equal to 1 time the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode. In some embodiments, the inlet is positioned, relative to an anode of the electrolytic cell (and/or an anode positioned at least partially within a container), within a distance that is greater than or equal to 0.01 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, greater than or equal to 0.1 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, or greater than or equal to 1 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.01 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode and less than or equal to 5 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, greater than or equal to 0.1 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode and less than or equal to 3 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, greater than or equal to 1 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode and less than or equal to 2 times the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the inlet is positioned in contact with the anode.

The shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode, as used herein, refers to the shortest dimension that passes through the geometric center of the anode and that passes from one external surface of the anode to an opposing external surface of the anode. To illustrate, if the anode is an elongated cylinder with a length larger than the diameter of the cylinder, the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode would be the diameter of the anode. If the anode were a sphere, the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode would be the diameter of the sphere. If the anode were a cube, the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode would be the length from the center of one face of the cube to the center of the opposite face of the cube. In certain embodiments, the anode is cylindrical in shape with its long axis oriented vertically, and the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode is the diameter of the anode. In example 1A, for example, the shortest cross-sectional dimension of anodeis shown as length.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that as the shortest cross-sectional dimension of the anode increases in size, bubble formation intensifies and creates a larger volume of aerated molten salt, which permits the inlet to be spaced farther away from the anode. As the anode decreases in size, performance is enhanced when the inlet is closer to the anode.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that the tolerance for the distance between the inlet and any anode(s) present in the electrolytic cell may be affected by the viscosity and/or the surface tension of the electrolyte. As noted elsewhere herein, the presence of bubbles generated at the anode may facilitate the dissolution of solid material introduced into the electrolytic cell. It is believed that bubbles generated at the anode in electrolytes that are more viscous may be transported shorter distances from the anode than bubbles generated at the anode in electrolytes that are less viscous. Accordingly, it is believed that, in order for the bubbles to facilitate the dissolution of solid material, the solid material would need to be introduced closer to the anode in electrolytic cells including more viscous electrolytes and could be introduced farther from the anode in electrolytic cells including less viscous electrolytes.

The electrolytes described herein may have a variety of suitable viscosities. In some embodiments, an electrolyte has a viscosity of greater than or equal to 0.001 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.002 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.005 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.0075 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.01 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.02 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.05 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.075 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.1 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.2 Pa*s, greater than or equal to 0.5 Pa*s, or greater than or equal to 0.75 Pa*s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte has a viscosity of less than or equal to 1 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.75 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.5 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.2 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.1 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.075 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.05 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.02 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.01 Pas, less than or equal to 0.0075 Pa*s, less than or equal to 0.005 Pa*s, or less than or equal to 0.002 Pa*s. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.001 Pa*s and less than or equal to 1 Pa*s). Other ranges are also possible.

It is also believed that the surface tension of the electrolyte may affect bubble size and bubble formation. Electrolytes having higher surface tensions may require more energy to form bubbles and bubbles that are produced therein may be less stable. This may result in the production of fewer smaller bubbles, which may reduce the utility of the bubbles for assisting with the dissolution of the solid material. Thus, it is believed that, in order for the bubbles to facilitate the dissolution of solid material, the solid material would need to be introduced closer to the anode in electrolytic cells including more electrolytes having higher surface tensions and could be introduced farther from the anode in electrolytic cells including electrolytes having lower surface tension.

The electrolytes described herein may have a variety of suitable surface tensions. In some embodiments, an electrolyte has a surface tension of 0.001 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.002 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.005 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.0075

N/m, greater than or equal to 0.01 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.02 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.05 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.075 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.1 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.2 N/m, greater than or equal to 0.5 N/m, or greater than or equal to 0.75 N/m. In some embodiments, an electrolyte has a surface tension of less than or equal to 1 N/m, less than or equal to 0.75 N/m, less than or equal to 0.5 N/m, less than or equal to 0.2 N/m, less than or equal to 0.1 N/m, less than or equal to 0.075 N/m, less than or equal to 0.05 N/m, less than or equal to 0.02 N/m, less than or equal to 0.01 N/m, less than or equal to 0.0075 N/m, less than or equal to 0.005 N/m, or less than or equal to 0.002 N/m. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.001 N/m and less than or equal to 1 N/m). Other ranges are also possible.